The Harappan Civilisation

Introduction to the Bronze Age

• The period when humans used both stone and copper tools is known as the Chalcolithic Period.
• Humans later discovered that mixing copper with tin or zinc produced bronze, a harder and more ductile alloy ideal for tools and weapons.
• Around 2500 BCE, four major Bronze Age civilisations emerged: the Harappan (India/Pakistan), Mesopotamian (Iraq), Chinese, and Egyptian civilisations.

Discovery

• It is considered the first civilisation in the north-western regions of the Indian subcontinent.
• Harappa was first excavated in 1921-22 by Daya Ram Sahni.
• Mohenjo-daro was excavated in 1922 by Rakhal Das Banerji.
• In 1924, Sir John Marshall (Director General of the ASI) formally announced the discovery of the Indus Valley Civilisation to the world, pushing India's known history back by at least a thousand years.

Sources of Information

Due to the undeciphered script, knowledge of the civilisation is entirely based on archaeological remains.

Architectural Structures

• The Great Bath (Mohenjo-daro): A large rectangular tank in a courtyard. Watertight construction using burnt bricks, mortar, bitumen, and gypsum. Surrounding rooms were likely for priests or changing clothes. It indicates high architectural perfection and was likely used for religious or ceremonial bathing.
• The Citadel: The raised area of the city built on mud-brick platforms. It housed the ruling class and important public buildings like the granary and assembly hall, showcasing elaborate urban planning and social classification.
• Dockyard (Lothal): A massive brick structure in Gujarat connected by channels to the Gulf of Cambay. It proves the existence of overseas trade and advanced hydraulic knowledge.

Artifacts and Art

• Seals: Over 2000 seals have been found, made of terracotta, steatite, and agate. Used primarily by traders to stamp goods. They also functioned as amulets or modern-day identity cards.
  • Pashupati Seal: Shows a three-faced deity wearing a buffalo-horned head-dress, seated cross-legged, surrounded by animals. Identified as Pashupati Mahadeva (an early form of Shiva).
  • Unicorn Seal: Displays mythical beliefs and undeciphered script.
• Bearded Man: A stone sculpture from Mohenjo-daro depicting a man with half-closed eyes, suggesting a state of meditation. It might represent a yogi or priest.
• Dancing Girl: A masterpiece bronze statue from Mohenjo-daro demonstrating high skill in sculpture and the lost-wax casting process.

The Script

• The script is pictographic, representing birds, fish, and human forms.
• It consists of between 375 and 400 signs, proving it is not alphabetical.
• It was written from right to left.
• Found on seals, copper tools, jars, jewellery, and an ancient signboard (at Dholavira).

Origin and Extent

• Origin: Theories of foreign origin (migration from Mesopotamia) are largely rejected due to striking differences and lack of early trade evidence. Recent research supports an indigenous origin, showing the culture evolved from extensive local village communities like Kot Diji, Amri, and Kalibangan.
• Extent: The civilisation covered a triangular area of roughly 1.3 million sq. km, the largest among ancient civilisations. It extended from Sutkagendor (west) to Alamgirpur (east), and Manda (north) to Bhagatrav (south).

Urban Planning

• Cities followed a strict grid pattern, unlike the circular patterns of Sumerian cities.
• Cities were generally divided into the raised 'Citadel' and the residential 'lower town'.
• Main streets ran straight, intersecting at right angles with rounded corners to allow carts to pass easily.
• Houses: Built on high mounds to protect from floods using baked bricks and wood. They featured courtyards, up to twelve rooms, private wells, and toilets. Doors and windows opened onto side lanes, not main roads.
• Drainage: Highly advanced. House drains emptied into covered street drains.
• Granaries: Found at multiple sites. Harappa featured two rows of six granaries built on raised platforms to protect grain from floods, complete with circular brick platforms for threshing grain.

Trade and Economy

• Internal Trade: Carried out in stone, metal, and shell within the Indus zone using a barter system (no metal money).
• External Trade: Trade relations existed with Mesopotamia (which referred to the Indus region as 'Meluha', a land of seafarers) and intermediate stations like Dilmun (Bahrain) and Makan. Imports included gold (Karnataka, Afghanistan) and copper (Rajasthan, Arabia).
• Weights and Measures: Standardized cubical stone weights were used. The basic unit was 16 (equal to modern 14 grams), with larger weights being multiples of 16.
• Transport: Evidence of ships on seals, terracotta ship models, and bullock carts (similar to the modern 'Ekka').

Art, Craft, and Lifestyle

• Craftsmanship: Skilled in boat-making, seal-making, and crafting jewellery from gold, silver, and precious stones. Weaving was also prominent (woven cotton discovered at Mohenjo-daro).
• Pottery: Distinctive glossy, shining pottery crafted on a wheel. Often featured red pots with black geometrical designs.
• Sculpture: Realistic human and animal figures made of stone, bronze (lost wax process), and terracotta. Large numbers of terracotta 'Mother Goddess' figures were found.
• Dress and Ornaments: Men wore dhotis and shawls; women wore skirts and cloaks. The discovery of needles indicates stitched clothing. Both genders wore ornaments like necklaces, bangles, and armlets.
• Amusements: They played dice, hunted, fished, and used musical instruments like the drum and lyre. Children had terracotta toys like carts and whistles.

Decline of the Civilisation (c. 1800 BCE)

The exact cause of the decline is debated, with multiple factors likely contributing:

• Floods and Earthquakes: Silt deposits at Mohenjo-daro suggest repeated flooding. Tectonic disturbances may have blocked river passages, causing inundation.
• Increased Aridity and Climate Change: A recent study by the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM) revealed that reduced solar radiation, El Niño, and a negative Indian Ocean Dipole weakened the monsoon, leading to prolonged droughts. River courses shifted (e.g., Sutlej and Yamuna), drying up the river Ghaggar.
• Deforestation: Massive amounts of wood were required for baking bricks and smelting bronze, leading to environmental degradation.
• Attack/Invasion: Historian Mortimer Wheeler theorised an Aryan invasion, pointing to unburied skeletons found scattered in streets and rooms at Mohenjo-daro during its last phase.

Lasting Heritage

• The physical decline did not mean a total disappearance of the culture. Many traits were adopted by later civilisations.
• Methods of making pottery, baked bricks, and textiles continued.
• The cultivation of cotton was a remarkable achievement later adopted by other cultures like the Egyptians.
• Religious practices—such as the worship of Pashupati Shiva, the Mother Goddess, sacred trees, and animals—were prevalent during the Harappan period and have continued in Indian religious traditions to this day.