The Making of a Global World - Q&A
Write in Brief1. Give two examples of different types of global exchanges which took place before the seventeenth century, choosing one example from Asia and one from the Americas.
Two examples of global exchanges before the seventeenth century are:
1. From Asia (The Silk Routes): The "silk routes" are a prime example of pre-modern trade and cultural links. Chinese silk and pottery, as well as textiles and spices from India and Southeast Asia, traveled to Europe and Northern Africa. In return, precious metals like gold and silver flowed from Europe to Asia. Along with goods, these routes also facilitated the exchange of religions like Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam.
2. From the Americas (Food Travels): Many common foods that we eat today—such as potatoes, maize, tomatoes, chillies, and sweet potatoes—were originally found in the Americas. After Christopher Columbus discovered the continent, these foods were introduced to Europe, Asia, and Africa. The introduction of the potato, for instance, significantly improved the diet and life expectancy of Europe's poor.
2. Explain how the global transfer of disease in the pre-modern world helped in the colonisation of the Americas.
The global transfer of disease played a decisive role in the European colonisation of the Americas:
1. Lack of Immunity: The original inhabitants of the Americas had been isolated from the rest of the world for millions of years. Consequently, they had no natural immunity to diseases that were common in Europe.
2. Biological Warfare: When the Spanish and Portuguese arrived in the mid-sixteenth century, they carried germs like smallpox on their person. Smallpox proved to be a deadly killer.
3. Decimation of Population: The disease spread deep into the continent ahead of the actual movement of European troops. It killed and decimated whole communities, effectively clearing the way for conquest without the Europeans needing to rely solely on military firepower.
3. Write a note to explain the effects of the following:
a) The British government’s decision to abolish the Corn Laws.
The abolition of the Corn Laws had the following effects:
* Lower Food Prices: Food could be imported into Britain more cheaply than it could be produced domestically.
* Impact on Agriculture: British agriculture could not compete with cheap imports. Vast areas of land were left uncultivated, and thousands of men and women lost their jobs.
* Migration: Unemployed agricultural workers flocked to cities or migrated overseas to countries like America and Australia.
* Global Agricultural Expansion: To meet the British demand for food, lands were cleared in Eastern Europe, Russia, America, and Australia, leading to the development of a global agricultural economy.
b) The coming of rinderpest to Africa.
The arrival of Rinderpest (Cattle Plague) in Africa in the late 1880s had devastating effects:
* Loss of Livelihood: Rinderpest killed 90 per cent of the cattle in Africa. Since Africans relied heavily on land and livestock, this destroyed their traditional livelihoods.
* Forced Labour: The loss of cattle forced Africans into the labour market to work for wages, which they had previously resisted.
* Colonisation: Colonial governments and mine owners monopolised the remaining cattle to strengthen their power. This control over a scarce resource enabled European colonisers to conquer and subdue Africa effectively.
c) The death of men of working-age in Europe because of the World War.
The First World War saw 9 million dead and 20 million injured, mostly men of working age. The effects included:
* Workforce Reduction: The death and injury of so many able-bodied men significantly reduced the available workforce in Europe.
* Decline in Household Income: With fewer earning members in families, household incomes declined after the war.
* Social Change: As men went to battle, women stepped in to undertake jobs that were earlier exclusively done by men, transforming the social status and role of women.
d) The Great Depression on the Indian economy.
The Great Depression (1929–mid-1930s) impacted India significantly:
* Trade Collapse: India's exports and imports nearly halved between 1928 and 1934.
* Price Crash: Wheat prices in India fell by 50 per cent. Raw jute prices crashed by more than 60 per cent, devastating the peasants of Bengal who produced it.
* Peasant Misery: While prices fell, the colonial government refused to reduce revenue demands. Peasants fell deeper into debt and were forced to sell their gold and savings.
* Urban Stability: Urban dwellers with fixed incomes (like salaried employees) were better off as the cost of living dropped due to falling prices.
e) The decision of MNCs to relocate production to Asian countries.
From the late 1970s, Multinational Corporations (MNCs) began shifting production to low-wage Asian countries. The effects were:
* Stimulated World Trade: This relocation stimulated world trade and capital flows.
* Economic Transformation: Countries like China, India, and Brazil underwent rapid economic transformation and became major centers of global production.
* Cheap Consumer Goods: It led to the availability of low-cost goods (like toys and electronics) in global markets.
* Employment: It created employment opportunities in developing Asian countries while reducing manufacturing jobs in developed countries.
4. Give two examples from history to show the impact of technology on food availability.
Two examples of the impact of technology on food availability are:
1. Railways: The expansion of the railway network allowed food to be transported quickly and cheaply from agricultural regions to ports and cities. This meant that food could reach markets from faraway farms, making it available to more people.
2. Refrigerated Ships: Before this technology, animals were shipped live, which was expensive and inefficient. Refrigeration allowed animals to be slaughtered at the starting point (e.g., America or Australia) and transported as frozen meat to Europe. This lowered shipping costs and reduced meat prices, allowing the European poor to include meat, butter, and eggs in their diet.
5. What is meant by the Bretton Woods Agreement?
The Bretton Woods Agreement refers to the framework agreed upon at the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference held in July 1944 at Bretton Woods in New Hampshire, USA.
* Aim: Its main objective was to preserve economic stability and full employment in the industrial world.
* Institutions: It established two key institutions: the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to deal with external surpluses and deficits, and the World Bank (International Bank for Reconstruction and Development) to finance post-war reconstruction.
* System: It established a system of fixed exchange rates where national currencies were pegged to the US dollar, and the dollar was anchored to gold.
Discuss
6. Imagine that you are an indentured Indian labourer in the Caribbean. Drawing from the details in this chapter, write a letter to your family describing your life and feelings.
(Sample Letter)
Dearest Family,
I hope this letter finds you in good health. I am writing to you from Trinidad, thousands of miles away from our village.
Life here is very different from what the agent promised me. He told me I would be going to a land of opportunity, but the reality is harsh. The journey itself was long and terrifying; I did not even know we were going on a sea voyage.
The work on the plantation is grueling. We toil from sunrise to sunset in the sugarcane fields. The tasks are heavy, and if we cannot complete them, our wages are deducted. We have very few legal rights and are often treated as though we are slaves. If we try to escape into the wilds, we face severe punishment if caught.
However, we are finding ways to survive. I have met people from many different parts of India here. We share our stories and our traditions. Just last week, we joined the "Hosay" procession—it is a local festival that feels like a mix of our Muharram and a carnival. It makes me feel a little less lonely to see our culture alive here, even if it is changing.
I miss you all terribly and hope to return after my five-year contract ends, though many here seem to stay on forever.
Your loving son,
Ram
7. Explain the three types of movements or flows within international economic exchange. Find one example of each type of flow which involved India and Indians, and write a short account of it.
Economists identify three types of movements or "flows" within international economic exchange:
1. Flow of Trade (Trade in Goods): This refers to the export and import of physical goods like cloth or wheat.
* Example involving India: Historically, fine cotton textiles produced in India were exported to Europe. In the nineteenth century, as British industries grew, India shifted to exporting raw materials like raw cotton, indigo, and opium to Britain and China, while importing manufactured British goods.
2. Flow of Labour (Migration): This refers to the migration of people in search of employment.
* Example involving India: In the nineteenth century, hundreds of thousands of Indian "indentured labourers" migrated to work on plantations and mines in the Caribbean, Mauritius, and Fiji. They were hired under contracts that promised a return to India after five years of work.
3. Flow of Capital (Investment): This refers to the movement of money for short-term or long-term investments over long distances.
* Example involving India: Indian bankers like the Shikaripuri Shroffs and Nattukottai Chettiars financed export agriculture in Central and Southeast Asia. They used their own funds or borrowed from European banks to invest in these regions, establishing a sophisticated system of money transfer.
8. Explain the causes of the Great Depression.
The Great Depression (1929–mid-1930s) was caused by a combination of factors:
1. Agricultural Overproduction: This was a major problem. As agricultural prices fell, farmers tried to maintain their income by expanding production. This flooded the market with even more produce, causing prices to crash further. Farm produce ended up rotting because there were no buyers.
2. Withdrawal of US Loans: Many countries depended on US loans for investment. In the late 1920s, US lenders panicked at the first sign of trouble and withdrew their loans. This withdrawal led to the collapse of banks in Europe and the failure of currencies like the British pound sterling.
3. US Trade Barriers: The US attempted to protect its own economy by doubling import duties. This action severely hit world trade, spreading the depression globally.
9. Explain what is referred to as the G-77 countries. In what ways can G-77 be seen as a reaction to the activities of the Bretton Woods twins?
G-77 Countries: The G-77 refers to a group organized by developing countries (most of which were former colonies) to demand a new international economic order (NIEO).
Reaction to Bretton Woods Twins: The G-77 can be seen as a reaction to the Bretton Woods institutions (IMF and World Bank) for the following reasons:
1. Focus of Bretton Woods: The IMF and World Bank were originally designed to meet the financial needs of the industrial countries (like the US and Europe). They were not equipped to handle the challenges of poverty and lack of development faced by the newly independent colonies.
2. Lack of Benefit: Most developing countries did not benefit from the rapid economic growth that Western economies experienced in the 1950s and 1960s under the guidance of these institutions.
3. Demand for Control: The G-77 demanded the NIEO to get real control over their own natural resources, which were often exploited by foreign corporations. They also sought fairer prices for their raw materials and better access to developed markets for their manufactured goods, things the Bretton Woods system had failed to provide them.
Quick Navigation:
Quick Review Flashcards - Click to flip and test your knowledge!
Question
As early as 3000 BCE, an active coastal trade linked the Indus valley civilisations with which region?
Answer
West Asia
Question
What form of currency, consisting of seashells from the Maldives, was used in ancient trade with China and East Africa?
Answer
Cowries
Question
The long-distance spread of disease-carrying germs became an 'unmistakable link' between regions by which century?
Answer
The thirteenth century
Question
The name 'silk routes' specifically refers to the importance of West-bound cargoes of which product?
Answer
Chinese silk
Question
Between which two time periods did the silk routes primarily thrive?
Answer
From before the Christian Era until the fifteenth century
Question
What precious metals typically flowed from Europe to Asia in exchange for textiles and spices along the silk routes?
Answer
Gold and silver
Question
Which religion emerged from eastern India and spread via the silk routes long before the arrival of Christian or Muslim missionaries?
Answer
Buddhism
Question
It is widely believed that noodles travelled west from China to eventually become which common food item?
Answer
Spaghetti
Question
Which group is credited with potentially taking pasta to fifth-century Sicily?
Answer
Arab traders
Question
Many common foods like potatoes, maize, and chillies were introduced to Europe and Asia only after the discovery of which continent?
Answer
The Americas
Question
According to the source, from which group of people did many of our common foods originally come?
Answer
American Indians
Question
The introduction of which 'humble' crop allowed Europe’s poor to eat better and live longer?
Answer
The potato
Question
Between 1845 and 1849, approximately one million people died in Ireland due to the destruction of which crop?
Answer
The potato
Question
The pre-modern world 'shrank' significantly in the sixteenth century after European sailors found sea routes to Asia and _____.
Answer
America
Question
Before the sixteenth century, which ocean was the centre of a bustling trade in goods, people, and knowledge?
Answer
The Indian Ocean
Question
Which precious metal from mines in Peru and Mexico enhanced Europe's wealth and financed its trade with Asia?
Answer
Silver
Question
What was the name of the fabled city of gold that prompted many European expeditions to South America?
Answer
El Dorado
Question
What was the most powerful weapon used by Spanish conquerors against the original inhabitants of America?
Answer
Germs (specifically smallpox)
Question
Why were smallpox germs particularly devastating to America's original inhabitants?
Answer
They had no immunity due to long isolation from the rest of the world.
Question
Term: Dissenter
Answer
Definition: One who refuses to accept established beliefs and practices.
Question
In eighteenth-century America, plantations worked by slaves captured in _____ grew cotton and sugar for European markets.
Answer
Africa
Question
Which two countries were considered among the world's richest until well into the eighteenth century?
Answer
China and India
Question
What change in Chinese policy in the fifteenth century helped shift the centre of world trade westwards towards Europe?
Answer
China restricted overseas contacts and retreated into isolation.
Question
Economists identify three types of 'flows' in international economic exchange: trade, capital, and _____.
Answer
Labour
Question
In nineteenth-century international exchange, the flow of trade referred largely to trade in _____.
Answer
Goods (such as cloth or wheat)
Question
What was the primary reason for the increased demand for food grains in Britain from the late eighteenth century?
Answer
Population growth
Question
The British government laws that restricted the import of corn were commonly known as the _____.
Answer
Corn Laws
Question
Which groups in Britain successfully pressured the government to abolish the Corn Laws?
Answer
Industrialists and urban dwellers
Question
What was the immediate economic result for British agriculture after the Corn Laws were scrapped?
Answer
It was unable to compete with cheaper food imports.
Question
Nearly how many people emigrated from Europe to America and Australia during the nineteenth century?
Answer
50 million
Question
By 1890, what type of economy had taken shape globally, where food was grown by workers thousands of miles away?
Answer
A global agricultural economy
Question
What were the 'Canal Colonies' in west Punjab established by the British Indian government?
Answer
Areas irrigated by new canals settled by peasants to grow wheat and cotton for export.
Question
Between 1820 and 1914, world trade is estimated to have multiplied by how many times?
Answer
25 to 40 times
Question
Nearly 60 per cent of world trade between 1820 and 1914 comprised 'primary products', such as minerals and _____.
Answer
Agricultural products (wheat and cotton)
Question
Before the 1870s, why was the meat of animals shipped from America to Europe considered an expensive luxury?
Answer
Live animals took up too much ship space and often died or fell ill during the voyage.
Question
Which technological development allowed for the transport of perishable foods like frozen meat over long distances?
Answer
Refrigerated ships
Question
How did the development of refrigerated ships affect the diet of the European poor?
Answer
It lowered meat prices and allowed them to consume a more varied diet.
Question
At which 1885 meeting did European powers meet to complete the 'carving up' of Africa?
Answer
The Berlin Conference
Question
Which two nations made the vastest additions to their overseas territories in the late nineteenth century?
Answer
Britain and France
Question
The United States became a colonial power in the late 1890s by taking over colonies previously held by which nation?
Answer
Spain
Question
Who was the journalist and explorer whose explorations of the African terrain were directly linked to imperial projects?
Answer
Sir Henry Morton Stanley
Question
In late-nineteenth-century Africa, why was there a shortage of labour willing to work for wages?
Answer
Abundant land and livestock meant people had little reason to work for a wage.
Question
What cattle disease arrived in Africa in the late 1880s and killed 90 per cent of the continent's cattle?
Answer
Rinderpest
Question
How did Rinderpest originally enter the African continent?
Answer
Through infected cattle imported from British Asia to feed Italian soldiers in Eritrea.
Question
How did the loss of cattle from Rinderpest benefit European colonisers in Africa?
Answer
It destroyed African livelihoods, forcing them into the labour market.
Question
Term: Indentured labour
Answer
Definition: A bonded labourer under contract to work for an employer for a specific time to pay off their passage.
Question
From which specific regions in India did the majority of nineteenth-century indentured workers come?
Answer
Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, central India and the dry districts of Tamil Nadu.
Question
What were the main Caribbean destinations for Indian indentured migrants?
Answer
Trinidad, Guyana, and Surinam
Question
Why has nineteenth-century indenture often been described as a 'new system of slavery'?
Answer
Labourers faced harsh conditions, few legal rights, and false information about their work.
Question
The annual Muharram procession in Trinidad was transformed by workers into which riotous carnival?
Answer
Hosay
Question
Which Jamaican protest religion is said to reflect social and cultural links with Indian migrants to the Caribbean?
Answer
Rastafarianism
Question
What is 'Chutney music' in the context of global cultural fusion?
Answer
A popular musical form in Trinidad and Guyana expressing the post-indenture experience.
Question
In what year was the system of indentured labour migration officially abolished?
Answer
1921
Question
Which two Indian banking groups were prominent in financing export agriculture in Central and Southeast Asia?
Answer
Shikaripuri Shroffs and Nattukottai Chettiars
Question
Which group of Indian traders established flourishing emporia at busy ports worldwide from the 1860s?
Answer
Hyderabadi Sindhi traders
Question
Why did the share of Indian cotton textile exports decline from 30 per cent in 1800 to below 3 per cent by the 1870s?
Answer
British industrialisation and the imposition of tariffs to protect local British industries.
Question
Between 1812 and 1871, the share of which raw material export from India rose from 5 per cent to 35 per cent?
Answer
Raw cotton
Question
Britain used the money earned from exporting Indian-grown _____ to China to finance its tea imports.
Answer
Opium
Question
How did Britain use its 'trade surplus' with India in the late nineteenth century?
Answer
To balance its trade deficits with other countries via a multilateral settlement system.
Question
What were 'home charges' in the context of the British Indian economy?
Answer
Payments including private remittances, interest on India's external debt, and pensions of British officials.