Pastoralists in the Modern World

1. Pastoral Nomads and their Movements in India

In the Mountains

• Gujjar Bakarwals (Jammu and Kashmir): Great herders of goats and sheep who migrated annually. In winter, they lived in the low hills of the Siwalik range. By April, they moved north to the lush green summer grazing grounds in the Kashmir valley.
• Gaddi Shepherds (Himachal Pradesh): Followed a similar seasonal cycle. They spent winters in the Siwalik hills and summers in the high mountain meadows of Lahul and Spiti.
• Gujjar Cattle Herders (Garhwal and Kumaon): Moved between the dry winter forests of the bhabar and the high summer meadows called bugyals.
• Other Himalayan Communities: The Bhotiyas, Sherpas, and Kinnauris also adjusted to seasonal changes to ensure continuous pasture use without overgrazing.

On the Plateaus, Plains, and Deserts

• Dhangars (Maharashtra): Shepherds, blanket weavers, and buffalo herders. They stayed in the semi-arid central plateau during monsoons (growing bajra) and moved to the prosperous Konkan region after harvest to graze flocks and supply manure to farmers' fields.
• Gollas, Kurumas, and Kurubas (Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh): Reared cattle, sheep, and goats. Their movement was dictated by the alternation of monsoons and dry seasons, migrating between dry central plateaus and coastal tracts.
• Banjaras (UP, Punjab, Rajasthan, MP, Maharashtra): Traveled long distances selling plough cattle and goods to villagers in exchange for grain and fodder.
• Raikas (Rajasthan): Lived in the Thar Desert where rainfall was uncertain. They combined cultivation with pastoralism. The Maru (desert) Raikas herded camels, while others reared sheep and goats.

2. Colonial Rule and its Impact on Pastoral Life

The British colonial government introduced several policies that drastically altered the lives of pastoralists in India:

• Waste Land Rules: Uncultivated lands were seen as "unproductive" because they yielded no revenue or commercial crops. These lands were taken over and given to settled individuals, severely shrinking available grazing tracts.
• Forest Acts: Forests producing valuable timber (like deodar or sal) were declared 'Reserved', banning pastoral access. In 'Protected' forests, grazing was highly regulated with strict permits and timed entries to prevent sapling damage.
• Criminal Tribes Act (1871): British officials distrusted mobile populations. Pastoral communities were unjustly classified as "criminal by nature and birth," forcing them into notified village settlements under constant police surveillance.
• Grazing Tax: To boost revenue, a tax was imposed on every grazed animal. Pastoralists had to show a pass and pay taxes to enter grazing tracts, heavily burdening them financially.

3. Pastoralists' Coping Mechanisms

• Deterioration of Pastures: Confined movements led to intensive, continuous overgrazing, causing fodder shortages, deterioration of animal stock, and massive cattle deaths during famines.
• Changing Routes: Pastoralists discovered new grazing grounds. For instance, post-1947, the Raikas could no longer enter Sindh due to the new political boundaries with Pakistan, so they adapted by migrating to agricultural fields in Haryana.
• Altering Lifestyles: Some reduced their herd sizes. Wealthier pastoralists bought land, gave up nomadic life, and became settled peasants or traders. Poorer pastoralists borrowed money to survive, often losing their livestock and becoming laborers in fields or towns.

4. Pastoralism in Africa: The Maasai Experience

Africa hosts over half the world's pastoral population. The Maasai, cattle herders in East Africa (Kenya and Tanzania), faced severe challenges due to colonial policies.

Loss of Grazing Lands

• In 1885, Maasailand was sliced in half by an international boundary between British Kenya and German Tanganyika.
• The best grazing lands were taken for white settlement, pushing the Maasai into a small, arid zone (losing 60% of their pre-colonial land).
• Vast grazing areas were converted into Game Reserves (e.g., Maasai Mara, Serengeti National Park), where pastoralists were entirely barred from grazing or hunting.

Closed Borders and Droughts

• Pastoralists were restricted to special reserves and could not move without special permits, severely hurting their trading activities.
• Traditionally, nomadism helped them survive droughts. Confined to reserves, massive starvation and disease wiped out huge numbers of livestock during drought years (e.g., over half the Maasai cattle died between 1933 and 1934).

Social Changes in Maasai Society

• Pre-colonial Maasai society was divided into Elders (decision-makers) and Warriors (defenders/cattle raiders).
• The British appointed chiefs of sub-groups, granting them wealth and steady incomes. These chiefs survived droughts by buying land, settling in towns, and engaging in trade.
• Poor pastoralists lacked resources to survive crises. Many lost their livestock and were forced to work odd jobs like charcoal burning or road construction in towns.
• The traditional authority of elders and warriors was diminished, creating a new socio-economic divide between wealthy and poor pastoralists.

Conclusion

Despite facing shrinking lands, restrictive laws, and frequent crises in the modern world, pastoral communities continuously adapt. They change migration routes, exert political pressure for rights, and diversify their livelihoods. Environmentalists and economists increasingly recognize that pastoral nomadism is not a relic of the past, but an ecologically viable and resilient way of life perfectly suited to the world's dry and hilly regions.