The French Revolution

1. French Society During the Late Eighteenth Century

A Depleted Treasury: In 1774, Louis XVI of the Bourbon family ascended the throne. He inherited an empty treasury due to prolonged wars, the high cost of maintaining the extravagant palace of Versailles, and financial assistance given to thirteen American colonies in their war against Britain.
The Society of Estates: The "Old Regime" divided society into three estates. The First Estate (Clergy) and the Second Estate (Nobility) enjoyed birth privileges, most notably exemption from state taxes. The Third Estate (comprising 90% of the population, including peasants, artisans, merchants, and lawyers) bore the sole burden of all direct and indirect taxes, as well as feudal dues and Church tithes.
The Struggle to Survive: A rapid population increase (from 23 million in 1715 to 28 million in 1789) led to a massive demand for food. Insufficient grain production caused bread prices to skyrocket. Stagnant wages and frequent bad harvests created severe "subsistence crises."
Rise of the Middle Class: A prosperous and educated middle class emerged, earning wealth through overseas trade and manufacturing. Influenced by philosophers like John Locke, Jean Jacques Rousseau, and Montesquieu, they rejected privileges by birth and envisioned a society based on freedom, equal laws, and division of power within the government.

The Estates General (May 1789): Louis XVI convened the Estates General to pass new taxes. The Third Estate demanded that voting be conducted by the assembly as a whole (one member, one vote) rather than the traditional one vote per estate. Upon rejection, they walked out in protest.
The National Assembly (June 1789): The representatives of the Third Estate gathered in an indoor tennis court at Versailles, declaring themselves a National Assembly. Led by Mirabeau and Abbé Sieyès, they swore to draft a constitution limiting the monarch's powers.
Storming of the Bastille (July 14, 1789): Amidst severe food shortages, angry Parisian crowds stormed and destroyed the Bastille prison, a hated symbol of the king's despotic power.
The Great Fear: In the countryside, rumors spread that nobles had hired brigands to destroy crops. Panicked peasants attacked chateaux, looted hoarded grain, and burned manorial records, causing many nobles to flee.
End of the Feudal System: Yielding to the revolt, Louis XVI recognized the National Assembly. On August 4, 1789, the Assembly abolished the feudal system of taxes and obligations, forcing the clergy to give up their privileges and confiscating Church lands.

The Constitution of 1791: The National Assembly drafted a constitution that separated state power into the legislature, executive, and judiciary, effectively ending absolute monarchy.
Voting Rights: Citizens were divided. Only "active citizens" (tax-paying men over 25) were entitled to vote. The rest, including all women, were "passive citizens" with no voting rights.
Declaration of Rights: The Constitution began with the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, establishing natural and inalienable rights such as the right to life, freedom of speech, and equality before the law.

War and Radicalization: Louis XVI entered secret negotiations with Prussia. In April 1792, the National Assembly declared war on Prussia and Austria. Thousands of volunteers joined the army, singing the Marseillaise (now France's national anthem).
The Jacobin Club: Political clubs formed to discuss state policies. The most successful was the Jacobin club, led by Maximilian Robespierre, comprising less prosperous members of society known as sans-culottes.
Birth of the Republic (September 1792): After an uprising in August 1792, the royal family was imprisoned. Elections granted voting rights to all men over 21. The newly elected "Convention" abolished the monarchy and declared France a republic. Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette were executed for treason in 1793.

Severe Control and Punishment: Robespierre implemented a policy of terror. Anyone considered an enemy of the republic (ex-nobles, clergy, political opponents) was arrested, tried, and beheaded at the guillotine.
Radical Equality Laws: The government placed maximum ceilings on wages and prices, rationed meat and bread, forced the consumption of "equality bread," and converted churches into barracks. All citizens were addressed equally as Citoyen and Citoyenne.
End of Terror: Robespierre’s relentless policies alienated even his supporters. He was convicted and guillotined in July 1794.

New Power Structure: Following the fall of the Jacobins, the wealthier middle class seized power. A new constitution denied voting rights to the non-propertied classes.
The Directory: Executive power was handed to a five-member Directory to prevent a one-man dictatorship. However, constant clashes between the Directory and legislative councils led to political instability, paving the way for military dictator Napoleon Bonaparte.

Active Participation: Women were deeply involved in the revolution. Working-class women managed families while working as seamstresses, sellers, or servants for lower wages than men.
Political Demands: They formed political clubs (like the Society of Revolutionary and Republican Women) and newspapers, demanding equal political rights, including the right to vote and hold office. Notable figures like Olympe de Gouges actively campaigned for women's rights.
State Reforms vs. Repression: The revolutionary government initially introduced state schooling for girls, legalized divorce, and made marriage voluntary. However, during the Reign of Terror, women's clubs were forcefully closed, and prominent female leaders were executed. Women in France did not gain the right to vote until 1946.

The Triangular Trade: A highly profitable triangular slave trade existed between Europe, Africa, and the Americas to supply labor for Caribbean plantations producing sugar, coffee, and indigo.
Legislative Shifts: While the National Assembly hesitated to abolish slavery due to opposition from wealthy businessmen, the radical Convention government finally legislated the freedom of all slaves in 1794.
Reinstatement and Final Abolition: Napoleon Bonaparte reintroduced slavery ten years later. Slavery was ultimately and permanently abolished in French colonies in 1848.

Abolition of Censorship: The summer of 1789 brought the end of state censorship. The Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen established freedom of speech and expression.
Cultural Explosion: France was flooded with newspapers, pamphlets, books, and prints discussing current events. Plays, songs, and festivals became popular tools to spread ideas of liberty and justice to the uneducated masses.

The Rise of Napoleon: In 1804, Napoleon Bonaparte crowned himself Emperor of France. He conquered neighboring countries, viewing himself as a modernizer who protected private property and standardized weights and measures. Originally seen as a liberator, his armies soon became known as invaders. He was defeated at Waterloo in 1815.
Global Impact: The most significant legacy of the French Revolution was the spread of democratic rights and the idea of liberty. These concepts dismantled feudal systems across 19th-century Europe and inspired anti-colonial movements globally, influencing leaders like Tipu Sultan and Raja Rammohan Roy in India.

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